Volumetric Analysis

Volumetric Analysis:

It is a type of quantitative analysis based on the measurement of the volume of one solution required to react completely with a definite volume of another solution. By comparing the volume of two solutions, we can calculate the concentration of one solution provided that the concentration of another solution is known.

 

EQUIVALENT MASS OF COMPOUNDS

1. a) Equivalent mass of acid

Equivalent mass of acid = Molar Mass Basicity
Basicity = Number of replaceable hydrogen present in 1 molecule of acid

Acid	Molar Mass	Basicity	Equivalent mass = MolarMassBasicityMolarMassBasicity
1. Hydrochloric acid (HCl)	36.5	1	36.5
2. Nitric acid (HNO3)	63	1	63
3. Acetic acid (CH3COOH)	60	1	60
4. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)	98	2	49
5. Oxalic acid (COOH)2.2H2O	126	2	63
6. Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)	98	3	32.66

 

 

 

 

1. b) Equivalent mass of base

\frac{Molar\:Mass}{Acidity}

where Acidity = Number of the replaceable group for twice the number of oxygen present in 1 molecule of base.

 

Base	Molar mass	Acidity	Equivalent mass = MolarMassAcidityMolarMassAcidity
NaOH	40	1	40
NH4OH	35	1	35
Ca(OH)2	74	2	37
Al(OH)3	78	3	26
CaO	56	2	28
Al2O3	102	6	17

 

 

1. c) Equivalent mass of salt

Equivalent mass = MolarMassTotalPositivechargeinbasicradicalMolarMassTotalPositivechargeinbasicradical

Example: NH₄Cl = MolarMass1MolarMass1 = 53.5153.51 = 53.5

 

Example: CaCO₃ = MolarMass2MolarMass2 = 10021002 = 50

 

 

1. d) Equivalent mass of oxidizing and reducing agent

 

Equivalent mass = MolarMassChangeinOxidationNumberpermoleculeMolarMassChangeinOxidationNumberpermolecule

 

 

Example: Equivalent mass of KMnO₄

1. i) Acidic medium

MnO₄ ^–→ Mn²⁺

+7 +2

 

Change in oxidation number = 7 – 2 = 5

Equivalent mass = MolarMass5MolarMass5 = 15851585 = 31.6

1. ii) Basic medium

MnO₄ ^–→ MnO₄ ^{– –}

^{+7 +6}

Change in Oxidation Number = 1

Equivalent mass =MolarMass1MolarMass1 = 15811581 =158

 

1. c) Neutral medium

MnO₄ ^–→ MnO₂

^{+7 +4}

Change in Oxidation Number = 3

Equivalent mass =MolarMass3MolarMass3 = 15831583 =52.6

 

WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION

 

Percentage

 

%w/v (% by volume): It represents the amount of solution (in grams) present in 100 ml of solution

i.e. %w/v = MassofsoluteingramVolumeofsolutioninmlMassofsoluteingramVolumeofsolutioninml x 100

 

 

%w/w (% by mass): It represents the amount of solution (in grams) present in 100 g of solution

i.e. %w/w = MassofsoluteingramMassofsolutioningmMassofsoluteingramMassofsolutioningm x 100

 

 

Gram per liter (gL^-1): It represents the amount of solute (in gram) present in 1 liter of solution.

gL^-1 = MassofsoluteingramVolumeofsolutioninliterMassofsoluteingramVolumeofsolutioninliter

OR

gL^-1 = MassofsoluteingramVolumeofsolutioninmililiterMassofsoluteingramVolumeofsolutioninmililiter x 1000

 

 

PPM (Parts per million)

1 PPM = 1mgL^-1

Some relations

gL^-1 = %w/v x 10

gL^-1 = %w/w x specific gravity x 10

 

Normality (N)

The normality of a solution is defined as the number of equivalent solutes present in 1 liter of solution.

i.e. Normality = NumberofequivalentofsoluteVolumeofsolutioninliterNumberofequivalentofsoluteVolumeofsolutioninliter

= NumberofequivalentofsoluteVolumeofsolutioninmililiterNumberofequivalentofsoluteVolumeofsolutioninmililiter x 1000

 

Also,

Normality = MassEquivalentMassMassEquivalentMass x 1000Volumeinml1000Volumeinml

= gL−1EquivalentMassgL−1EquivalentMass

 

Normal solution ( 1 N Normality): The solution containing 1 equivalent of solute in 1 liter of solution is called a normal solution.

 

Decinormal solution(N10(N10): The solution containing 110110 th equivalent of solute in 1 liter of solution is known as decinormal solution.

Similarly, N100N100 is called a centinormal solution and N2N2 is called a seminormal solution.

 

Molarity ( mol L ^-1): Molarity of a solution is defined as the number of moles of solute present in 1 liter of solution.

Molarity = = NumberofmolesofsoluteVolumeofsolutioninliterNumberofmolesofsoluteVolumeofsolutioninliter

= NumberofmolesofsoluteVolumeofsolutioninmililiterNumberofmolesofsoluteVolumeofsolutioninmililiter x 1000

Also,

Molarity(M) = MassMolecularMassMassMolecularMass x 1000Volumeinml1000Volumeinml

= gL−1MolecularMassgL−1MolecularMass

 

Molar solution ( 1 M Molarity): The solution containing 1 mole of solute in 1 liter of solution is called a normal solution.

 

Decimolar solution(M10(M10): The solution containing 110110 th mole of solute in 1 liter of solution is known as decinormal solution.

Similarly, M100M100 is called a centimolar solution and N2N2 is called a semimolar solution.

RELATION BETWEEN MOLARITY AND NORMALITY

Normality = gL−1EquivalentMassgL−1EquivalentMass

or, gL^-1 = Normality x Equivalent mass ———–(i)

Similarly,

Molarity = gL−1MolecularMassgL−1MolecularMass

or, gL^-1 = Molarity x Molecular mass ———–(i)

Combining (i) and (ii)

Normality x Equivalent mass = Molarity x Molecular mass

For acid

Normality x MolecularMassBasicityMolecularMassBasicity = Molarity x Molecular mass

Or, Normality = Molarity x Basicity

For base,

Normality x MolecularMassAcidityMolecularMassAcidity = Molarity x Molecular mass

Or, Normality = Molarity x Acidity

Dilution principle

A solution of lower concentration can be prepared from a solution of higher concentration using the dilution principle as:

V₁ x S₁ = V₂ x S₂

Where V₁ and S₁ are the volume and concentration of a solution of lower concentration and V₂ and S₂ are the volume and concentration of a solution of higher concentration.

Primary standard substance

A substance of sufficient purity from which standard solution can be prepared by directly weighing the exact quantity of the substance and dissolving an indefinite volume of solution is known as a primary standard substance. For a substance to be primary standard, it must have the following characteristics

1. i) The substance should be easily available in the pure state or in the state of known purity.
2. ii) The substance should not be hygroscopic or reactive in the atmosphere and should be easy to dry.

iii) The composition of the substance should not change in solid state or in solution form for a sufficiently long time.

1. iv) The compound should be easily soluble in water under the condition in which it is employed.
2. v) The substance should have comparatively high molar mass or equivalent mass so that error during weighting is minimized.

That substance that does not satisfy the above characteristics is called a secondary standard substances. Standard solutions of these substances cannot be prepared by directly weighing the exact quantity of the substance and dissolving an indefinite volume of solution.

Example: HCl, NaOH, KMnO₄, etc.

Standard solution

The solution having a known concentration is known as a standard solution. It is of two types:

1. Primary Standard Solution
2. Secondary standard solution
3. Primary Standard Solution

A standard solution prepared from the primary standard substance by directly weighing the exact quantity of the substance and dissolving an indefinite volume of solution is called a primary standard solution. The concentration or composition of this solution does not change during storage for a long time.

1. Secondary standard solution

A standard solution that cannot be prepared by directly weighing the exact quantity of substance or a solution in which exact concentration is determined by titrating it with a suitable primary standard substance is known as a secondary standard solution. The concentration or composition of this solution changes during storage.

Factor (f): It is the term that indicates by what factor the actual concentration of solution differs from the proposed one.

Titration:

The experimental technique used to determine the concentration of the unknown solution by measuring the volume of standard solution required to react completely with a definite volume of unknown solution. The unknown solution is taken in a conical flask and the standard solution is added from a long graduated tube called a burette till the reaction is complete. The completion of the reaction is indicated by some physical change produced by the reagent itself or more usually by the use of an indicator or some other physical measurement.

SOME TERMS USED IN TITRATION

Equivalent point: A stage during titration in which an equivalent quantity of the substance is added from the burette to the solution in the conical flask is the equivalent point. At this stage, the reaction is usually completed.

Endpoint: The stage during titration at which the indicator changes its color to indicate the completion of the reaction is called the endpoint. It is the experimental point.

Titration error: The difference between the end point and the equivalent point is known as titration error.

Titrant: A standard solution or solution taken in a burette is called a titrant.

Titrand: An unknown solution or solution taken in the conical flask is called titrand.

Standardization: The process of finding the actual concentration of the secondary standard solution by titrating it with a suitable primary standard solution is known as standardization.

Indicator: An auxiliary substance used during titration to indicate completion by a sharp change in color is called an indicator. Examples: Phenolphthalein, Methyl Orange, Methyl red, etc.

TYPES OF TITRATION

1. a) Acid-base titration (Acidimetry/Alkalimetry)

The titration between acid and base is called acid-base titration. In this titration, a neutralization reaction takes place.

Acidimetry: The process of finding a concentration of unknown acid by titrating it with a standard solution of base is called acidimetry.

Alkalimetry: The process of finding a concentration of a base by titrating it with a standard solution of acid is called alkalimetry.

1. b) Redox Titration

The titration between the oxidizing agent and a reducing agent is known as redox titration. In this titration, a redox reaction (oxidation and reduction) takes place.

KMnO₄ + H₂SO₄→ K₂SO₄ + MnSO₄ + CO₂ + H₂O

Indicator used: KMnO₄ (as self-indicator)

1. c) Precipitation Titration

In this titration, the reaction involved is precipitation reaction. Example: Titration between Halide solution and AgNO₃ solution.

1. d) Complexometric titration

The reaction involved: Complex compound formation reaction

Example: Titration between metal ion with EDTA
EDTA = Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid

ACID-BASE INDICATORS AND THEIR SELECTION

The action of acid-base indicator

Those indicators that are used in acid-base titration like phenolphthalein, methyl orange, methyl red, etc. are called acid-base indicators. These indicators are weak acids or bases themselves. Each indicator has two different forms and each form has its own color. The color given by the indicator in a particular solution depends on the relative concentration of the two forms.

Consider the phenolphthalein indicator which is represented by HPH.

Here, phenolphthalein has two different forms (HPH) or unionized form is colorless and the ionized form (PH^–) is pink. When this indicator is added to the acidic solution, due to the common ion effect of H⁺ ion, equilibrium is largely shifted to the backward. This means the unionized form is dominant hence, is colorless in acidic solution. Similarly, when the indicator is added to the alkaline solution, the H⁺ ion of the indicator combines with the OH^– ion of a base to produce a unionized water molecule, and equilibrium is largely shifted forward. This means the indicator is dominantly found in ionized form and gives a pink color in ionized form.

Selection of Acid-Base Indicator

Each indicator has its own pH range for a color change. Some indicators have a pH range on a slightly acidic side. For example; Methyl orange (3.1 to 4.5). Some indicators have a pH range on the slightly basic side such as Phenolphthalein (8.3 – 10).

During the acid-base titration, the pH of the resulting solution changes by adding acid or base. When we plot pH of titrating solution against the volume of acid or base added, we get a curve called titration curve. The curve shows that there is a sharp change in pH near the equivalent point.

1. i) Titration between strong acid and strong base

During this titration, the pH of the resulting solution changes from 3 to 11 (approximately) near the equivalent point and the equivalent point lies at pH = 7. Any indicators which have a pH range between 3 to 11 can be used in this titration and suitable indicators are phenolphthalein, methyl orange, or methyl red.

 

1. ii) Titration between strong acid and weak base

During this titration, the pH of the resulting solution changes from 3 to 8 (approximately) and its equivalent point lies at pH less than 7 i.e. acidic side due to the hydrolysis of salt. Any indicators which have a pH range on the slightly acidic side can be used in the titration and the suitable indicators are methyl orange or methyl red.

iii) Titration between weak acid and strong base

During this titration, the pH of the resulting solution changes from 6 to 11 (approximately) and the equivalent point lies at pH more than 7 i.e. at the alkaline side due to the hydrolysis of salt. Any indicators that have a pH range on the slightly alkaline side can be used in this titration and a suitable indicator is phenolphthalein.

1. iv) Titration between weak acid and weak base

During this titration, there is no sharp change in pH near the equivalent point and there is no suitable indicator.